Radius et Ulna
The radius and ulna form the forearm (antebrachium), the segment between the elbow and the carpus. In the horse these two bones are fused, restricting movement to the sagittal plane with virtually no pronation or supination. The radius is the primary weight-bearing bone and carries the load from the elbow down to the carpus. The ulna contributes the olecranon tuberosity (point of the elbow), which provides leverage for the triceps muscle to extend the elbow, and then tapers distally, fusing with the radius at about mid-antebrachium. A small interosseous space remains in the proximal third and allows passage of blood vessels. The distal radius features medial and lateral styloid processes that articulate with the carpal bones.
Fractures of the radius are serious injuries that often require surgical repair and carry a guarded prognosis depending on configuration and soft-tissue damage. The olecranon can also fracture, affecting triceps function and elbow extension. Because the bones are fused, the forearm has no rotational capacity, which influences both normal biomechanics and injury patterns.
## Overview Carpal chip fractures are osteochondral fragments that break from the dorsal margins of the carpal bones, most often during high-speed exercise. They are a leading cause of lameness in ra
Fractures or bony growths (splints) on the second or fourth metacarpal bones. Splints are common in young horses beginning work and are caused by tearing of the interosseous ligament between the splin
## Overview Scapular fracture is a break of the shoulder blade from direct trauma such as kicks, falls, or collisions. The spine of the scapula and supraglenoid tubercle are common sites. Signs inclu
Laminitis is a medical emergency involving inflammation and structural failure of the laminae that suspend the [coffin bone](/anatomy/coffin-bone-distal-phalanx-p3) inside the hoof capsule. In severe
## Overview Stress fractures of the dorsal cortex of the third metacarpal bone are common in young racehorses. They result from repetitive high-strain loading before the bone has fully adapted. Clini
## Overview Incomplete or stress fractures of the radius occur in racehorses from repetitive loading. They cause forelimb lameness and carry a significant risk of propagating to a complete, catastrop
## Overview Physitis is inflammation of the growth plates (physes) in young horses, often related to rapid growth, nutritional imbalance, or excessive exercise. It causes warm, painful enlargement ar
Navicular syndrome is a complex, progressive condition affecting the podotrochlear apparatus in the heel of the horse's foot and is one of the most common causes of chronic forelimb lameness. It invol
## Overview The coffin bone (distal phalanx or third phalanx) is the terminal bone of the limb and sits entirely inside the hoof capsule. Because it is enclosed by the rigid hoof wall, fractures of t
## Overview Olecranon fracture is a break of the point of the elbow, usually from direct trauma such as a kick or fall. Because the triceps inserts on the olecranon, the horse cannot extend the elbow
## Overview Fractures of the proximal sesamoid bones range from small apical or basilar chips to catastrophic biaxial fractures in which both sesamoids break and the fetlock collapses. Chip fractures
Severe lameness with swelling of the forearm or inability to bear weight after trauma needs immediate veterinary attention. Do not attempt to walk the horse long distances until evaluated.
## Overview Carpal chip fractures are osteochondral fragments that break from the dorsal margins of the carpal bones, most often during high-speed exercise. They are a leading cause of lameness in racehorses. Common locations include the distal radial carpal bone and proximal third carpal bone. Fragments cause synovitis and, if left untreated, progressive cartilage damage. ## Causes Hyperextension and repetitive loading of the carpus during fast work are the primary mechanisms. Poor conformation, fatigue, and unsuitable racing surfaces contribute. ## Diagnosis Joint effusion, lameness that improves with carpal flexion or worsens after work, and positive response to intra-articular analgesia are typical. Radiographs demonstrate the fragment. Arthroscopy provides definitive assessment of cartilage damage. ## Treatment Arthroscopic removal of the fragment is the treatment of choice. Postoperative rest and progressive rehabilitation follow. Prognosis depends on the degree of cartilage injury observed at surgery. ## Recovery and Prognosis Many horses return to racing after uncomplicated chip removal. Extensive cartilage loss lowers the chance of sustained high-level performance. ## Prevention Gradual introduction to high-speed work and attention to track surface may reduce incidence, although evidence is limited. Signs include: carpal joint effusion; forelimb lameness after fast work; pain on carpal flexion; radiographic osteochondral fragment
Fractures or bony growths (splints) on the second or fourth metacarpal bones. Splints are common in young horses beginning work and are caused by tearing of the interosseous ligament between the splint and cannon bones. Signs include: Warm, painful swelling on the inside or outside of the cannon bone; lameness in acute phase; bony hard lump after healing (cosmetic blemish); usually resolves with rest; rarely causes long-term lameness unless near the knee or suspensory.; Consult veterinarian for specific symptoms.; Hard, warm, painful swelling on the side of the cannon bone; lameness (may be temporary); cosmetic blemish after healing; splint fractures can irritate the suspensory ligament if displaced.
## Overview Scapular fracture is a break of the shoulder blade from direct trauma such as kicks, falls, or collisions. The spine of the scapula and supraglenoid tubercle are common sites. Signs include sudden severe forelimb lameness, swelling over the shoulder, and pain on manipulation. Muscle atrophy resembling sweeney can develop over weeks. ## Causes Direct trauma. ## Diagnosis Radiographs or ultrasound of the scapula. ## Treatment Conservative management for many fractures. Surgical repair for selected supraglenoid or displaced fractures. Prognosis varies by location. ## Recovery and Prognosis Fair to good for many body or spine fractures. Supraglenoid fractures have a more guarded athletic outlook. ## Prevention Trauma avoidance. Signs include: sudden severe forelimb lameness; swelling over the shoulder; limb may swing outward; pain on manipulation; later muscle atrophy
Laminitis is a medical emergency involving inflammation and structural failure of the laminae that suspend the [coffin bone](/anatomy/coffin-bone-distal-phalanx-p3) inside the hoof capsule. In severe cases the coffin bone can rotate or sink, a progression known as founder. It is one of the most painful and potentially career-ending conditions affecting horses. ## What it is Laminitis occurs when the sensitive laminae that connect the coffin bone to the inner [hoof wall](/anatomy/hoof-wall) become inflamed and lose their structural integrity. This bond normally keeps the coffin bone suspended in the correct position within the hoof capsule. When the laminae weaken or separate, the coffin bone can displace downward or rotate, damaging the sole and potentially leading to penetration through the sole in extreme cases. The condition is often triggered by systemic issues that cause widespread inflammation or vascular changes in the foot. Common pathways include insulin dysregulation from [equine metabolic syndrome](/conditions/equine-metabolic-syndrome) or [Cushing's disease](/conditions/cushing-s-disease-ppid), carbohydrate overload from grain or lush pasture, severe illness or toxemia, and excessive weight-bearing on one limb when the opposite limb is injured. The forefeet are most commonly affected because they bear more weight, but all four feet can be involved. ## Signs and symptoms - Rocking back onto the heels with the front feet stretched forward (classic founder stance) - Reluctance to walk or turn, often described as walking on eggshells - Bounding digital pulses and heat in the hooves - Shifting weight constantly or lying down more than usual - Shortened stride and stiffness, especially in the front limbs - Pain on hoof tester pressure over the sole and toe region - In chronic cases, divergent growth rings on the hoof wall and a dropped sole ## Causes and risk factors Laminitis is rarely a primary hoof problem. It is most often secondary to metabolic, inflammatory, or mechanical triggers. The strongest risk factors include equine metabolic syndrome, pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (Cushing's disease), recent access to rich spring grass or excessive grain, and supporting-limb laminitis after injury to the opposite limb. Other contributing factors are retained placenta, colic, and any severe systemic illness that causes endotoxemia. Horses with poor hoof conformation, those that are overweight, and ponies appear to be at higher risk. Repeated episodes can lead to permanent changes in hoof structure and increased susceptibility to future episodes. ## How it is diagnosed Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, history, and radiographic findings. Veterinarians look for the characteristic stance, increased digital pulses, and hoof heat. Radiographs are essential to assess the position of the coffin bone relative to the hoof wall and to measure rotation or sinking. In some cases, venograms or advanced imaging help evaluate blood flow and the extent of laminar damage. Bloodwork is often performed to identify underlying metabolic or endocrine disease. ## Treatment and management Treatment must be started immediately and focuses on reducing pain, supporting the hoof, and addressing the underlying cause. Initial management includes strict stall rest on deep bedding, anti-inflammatory medication, and corrective farriery with supportive shoes or pads that redistribute weight away from the painful toe region. In severe cases, deep digital flexor tenotomy or other surgical interventions may be considered. Long-term management centers on controlling the primary disease (insulin regulation, diet management for metabolic cases) and maintaining excellent hoof care. Many horses can return to light work, but some remain pasture sound only. Prognosis depends heavily on the severity of coffin bone displacement and how quickly treatment began. ## When to call the vet Call your veterinarian immediately if your horse shows any of the classic signs: rocking back on the heels, bounding digital pulses, heat in the feet, or sudden reluctance to move. Laminitis is a true emergency. Early intervention dramatically improves the chance of a functional outcome. Do not wait to see if the horse improves on its own. ## Prevention Prevention focuses on managing known risk factors. Maintain a healthy body condition score, restrict access to lush pasture during high-risk periods, and feed low-sugar diets to horses with metabolic issues. Regular farriery, prompt treatment of illness or injury, and careful monitoring of at-risk horses (especially those with previous episodes) are essential. Horses with endocrine disease require lifelong management of the underlying condition. ## Frequently asked questions **Can a horse fully recover from laminitis?** Some horses return to athletic work, but many are left with permanent hoof changes. Early aggressive treatment offers the best chance of a good outcome. **Is laminitis the same as founder?** Founder refers to the displacement (rotation or sinking) of the coffin bone that can occur as a result of severe laminitis. Not all laminitis cases progress to founder. **How long does it take for a horse to recover from laminitis?** Recovery timelines vary widely. Mild cases may stabilize in weeks with proper care, while severe cases with significant bone displacement can take many months and may never return to previous function. This information is for educational purposes only. Always consult with a licensed veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment of your horse. Signs include: Rocking back onto the heels with the front feet stretched forward (classic founder stance); reluctance to walk or turn, often described as walking on eggshells; bounding digital pulses and heat in the hooves; shifting weight constantly or lying down more than usual; shortened stride and stiffness, especially in the front limbs; pain on hoof tester pressure over the sole and toe region; in chronic cases, divergent growth rings on the hoof wall and a dropped sole
## Overview Stress fractures of the dorsal cortex of the third metacarpal bone are common in young racehorses. They result from repetitive high-strain loading before the bone has fully adapted. Clinical signs are soreness over the cannon after fast work. Incomplete fractures can progress to complete fracture if training continues. ## Causes Cyclical fatigue of immature bone. ## Diagnosis Clinical examination and radiographs. Scintigraphy detects early stress remodeling. ## Treatment Rest and modification of the training schedule. Complete fractures may require internal fixation. ## Recovery and Prognosis Good for incomplete stress fractures with appropriate rest. Complete fractures have a more guarded outlook. ## Prevention Gradual introduction of high-speed work. Signs include: soreness over the dorsal cannon after fast work; heat and swelling; radiographic stress fracture or periosteal reaction
## Overview Incomplete or stress fractures of the radius occur in racehorses from repetitive loading. They cause forelimb lameness and carry a significant risk of propagating to a complete, catastrophic fracture if the horse continues to train or race. ## Causes Cyclical fatigue. ## Diagnosis Radiographs and scintigraphy. Clinical lameness after fast work. ## Treatment Strict rest. Complete fractures of the radius in adults have a very poor prognosis. ## Recovery and Prognosis Good for incomplete fractures that are rested. Complete fractures are usually fatal. ## Prevention Careful monitoring of young racehorses and modification of training when soreness appears. Signs include: forelimb lameness after fast work; radiographic or scintigraphic stress fracture of the radius
## Overview Physitis is inflammation of the growth plates (physes) in young horses, often related to rapid growth, nutritional imbalance, or excessive exercise. It causes warm, painful enlargement around the growth plates, most commonly at the distal radius, distal metacarpus/metatarsus, and distal tibia. Lameness may be present. ## Causes Rapid growth, high-energy diets, conformational stress, or trauma. ## Diagnosis Clinical appearance and radiographs showing physeal irregularity or flaring. ## Treatment Dietary adjustment (reduce energy), restricted exercise, and anti-inflammatories. Most cases resolve with management. ## Recovery and Prognosis Good with appropriate management. ## Prevention Balanced nutrition and controlled growth rate. Signs include: warm painful enlargement around growth plates; lameness; radiographic physeal changes in young horses
Navicular syndrome is a complex, progressive condition affecting the podotrochlear apparatus in the heel of the horse's foot and is one of the most common causes of chronic forelimb lameness. It involves degeneration or injury to any combination of the [navicular bone](/anatomy/navicular-bone-distal-sesamoid-right-forelimb), navicular bursa, [deep digital flexor tendon](/anatomy/deep-digital-flexor), and supporting ligaments rather than being a single disease of the navicular bone alone. Modern imaging has shown that soft tissue lesions often play a larger role than previously recognized. ## What it is The podotrochlear apparatus functions as an integrated unit in which the [navicular bone](/anatomy/navicular-bone-distal-sesamoid-right-forelimb) acts as a pulley for the [deep digital flexor tendon](/anatomy/deep-digital-flexor). The navicular bursa provides lubrication and cushioning between the tendon and bone, while the collateral sesamoidean ligaments and distal sesamoidean impar ligament stabilize the navicular bone. Repetitive stress from performance work, conformational factors, or poor hoof balance can lead to microdamage, inflammation, altered bone remodeling, and soft tissue degeneration within this apparatus. Current understanding recognizes that many cases involve primary lesions in the deep digital flexor tendon or bursa even when radiographs of the navicular bone appear relatively normal. The condition is almost always bilateral, though one foot is often more painful than the other. It is seen most frequently in Quarter Horses, warmbloods, and Thoroughbreds between approximately 7 and 15 years of age. ## Signs and symptoms - Bilateral forelimb lameness that is often asymmetric - Shortened stride with toe-first landing - Pointing one or both front feet forward at rest - Worsening lameness on hard ground or when circling - Positive response to palmar digital nerve blocks - Heel or frog sensitivity on hoof testers - Stiff or shuffling gait that owners sometimes mistake for shoulder lameness - Performance decline or intermittent stiffness in early stages - Contracted heels in long-standing cases ## Causes and risk factors Navicular syndrome develops from repetitive biomechanical stress on the podotrochlear apparatus. Contributing factors include poor hoof conformation (long toes, underrun heels, upright feet), inconsistent or improper farriery, high-impact disciplines, and genetic predisposition in certain breeds. The condition is multifactorial; no single cause has been identified. Horses with small feet relative to body size or those worked intensely on hard surfaces appear to be at increased risk. ## How it is diagnosed Diagnosis begins with a thorough lameness examination and diagnostic analgesia, particularly palmar digital nerve blocks. Radiographs can reveal changes in the navicular bone such as enlarged vascular channels, sclerosis, or cyst-like lesions, but many horses with significant lameness have minimal radiographic abnormalities. MRI is currently the most valuable imaging modality because it can identify soft tissue lesions in the [deep digital flexor tendon](/anatomy/deep-digital-flexor), bursa, and ligaments that are not visible on radiographs. Ultrasound and CT are used in selected cases. ## Treatment and management Treatment is multimodal and aimed at reducing pain and slowing progression rather than providing a cure. Core components include corrective farriery to improve breakover and support the heels, controlled exercise programs, and anti-inflammatory medication. Many horses benefit from targeted injections into the navicular bursa or [coffin joint](/anatomy/coffin-bone-distal-phalanx-p3) and systemic bisphosphonates to modulate bone remodeling. In refractory cases, navicular bursoscopy or palmar digital neurectomy may be considered after advanced imaging. Prognosis varies widely depending on the structures involved and how early treatment begins. Many horses can remain comfortable and functional for years with good management, though high-level athletic careers are often limited. ## When to call the vet Contact your veterinarian if your horse shows persistent forelimb stiffness, shortened stride, or pointing at rest, especially if the lameness worsens on hard surfaces or circles. Early evaluation allows for better diagnostic imaging and more effective long-term management. Do not assume the issue is simply "stiffness" or shoulder pain. ## Prevention Prevention centers on maintaining excellent hoof balance through regular professional farriery, avoiding sudden increases in workload on hard surfaces, and addressing conformational issues when possible. Early intervention at the first sign of heel-region discomfort offers the best chance of slowing disease progression. Horses with known risk factors benefit from proactive monitoring and conditioning programs. ## Frequently asked questions **Is navicular syndrome curable?** No. It is a chronic, progressive condition. Many horses can be managed successfully for years, but ongoing care is usually required. **Does my horse need an MRI for diagnosis?** Radiographs are a good starting point, but MRI provides the most complete picture of soft tissue involvement and helps guide specific treatment decisions. **Can a horse with navicular syndrome still be ridden?** Many horses return to light to moderate work with proper management. The level of return depends on the severity of lesions and response to treatment. This information is for educational purposes only. Always consult with a licensed veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment of your horse. Signs include: Bilateral forelimb lameness that is often asymmetric; shortened stride with toe-first landing; pointing one or both front feet forward at rest; worsening lameness on hard ground or when circling; positive response to palmar digital nerve blocks; heel or frog sensitivity on hoof testers; stiff or shuffling gait that owners sometimes mistake for shoulder lameness; performance decline or intermittent stiffness in early stages; contracted heels in long-standing cases
## Overview The coffin bone (distal phalanx or third phalanx) is the terminal bone of the limb and sits entirely inside the hoof capsule. Because it is enclosed by the rigid hoof wall, fractures of this bone behave differently from fractures of other bones. The hoof itself can help stabilize some fractures once the wall is supported, but the same enclosure also makes diagnosis and surgical access more challenging. Coffin bone fractures are classified according to their location and whether the fracture line enters the distal interphalangeal (coffin) joint. Non-articular fractures (commonly wing or solar-margin fractures that do not enter the joint) generally carry a better prognosis with conservative management. Articular fractures (those that enter the coffin joint) carry a higher risk of osteoarthritis. Selected articular fractures, especially some type II and type III fractures, may benefit from surgical fixation, but large retrospective data do not show surgery is uniformly superior to conservative treatment across all articular distal phalanx fractures. Comminuted fractures that involve the joint have the poorest outlook. Most coffin bone fractures result from acute trauma or severe concussion. A smaller number are pathological fractures that occur secondary to underlying bone disease such as chronic laminitis or pedal osteitis, particularly solar-margin fractures. ## Causes The majority of coffin bone fractures are traumatic. Common scenarios include high-speed work on hard or uneven ground, stepping on a rock, kicking a wall or solid object, or landing awkwardly from a jump. Forelimbs are more frequently affected than hindlimbs, reflecting the greater weight they carry. Solar-margin fractures (Type VI) are sometimes associated with demineralization of the bone and can occur secondary to chronic laminitis or pedal osteitis. In foals, a specific pattern of solar-margin fracture of the palmar or plantar process (Type VII) is recognized and is thought to result from excessive tensile forces. ## Diagnosis Your veterinarian will perform a lameness examination, including hoof-tester response and, when appropriate, diagnostic nerve blocks to confirm that the pain originates in the foot. Radiography is the primary imaging method. Multiple views are usually required, and special oblique projections materially improve detection of palmar or plantar process fractures. Some fractures are subtle initially, and repeat high-quality imaging may be needed if clinical suspicion remains high. Computed tomography (CT) is best used as a problem-solving and surgical-planning tool for subtle, complex, or articular fractures. It is not a routine requirement for every suspected coffin bone fracture. ## Treatment Treatment is guided by fracture configuration rather than by a single protocol. Non-articular fractures (most Type I wing fractures and many solar-margin fractures) are typically managed conservatively with stall rest for several months. External hoof support with a foot cast or a bar shoe fitted with a rim or multiple clips is commonly used. The largest multicentre study did not find that hoof immobilisation itself improved outcome. Selected articular fractures, especially some type II wing fractures and type III sagittal fractures, may benefit from surgical fixation. Small extensor-process fragments can be removed arthroscopically. Larger articular fractures may be compressed with a lag screw placed through the hoof wall. Surgical approaches carry a risk of infection, which may require later screw removal. Conservative management of articular fractures is also used and is not uniformly inferior. In one retrospective study of type III fractures, 3D-assisted surgery was associated with fewer radiographic cases of distal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis than conservative treatment, but recovery time was not significantly different. Severely comminuted fractures that involve the joint are often not amenable to internal fixation. Comfort can be difficult to achieve, and euthanasia is sometimes the most humane option. ## Recovery and Prognosis Recovery time is measured in months. Non-articular fractures managed with rest often return to soundness, with reported success rates above 90 percent for return to intended use in large case series. Articular fractures have a more guarded outlook; success rates around 70 percent have been reported, and the development of osteoarthritis in the coffin joint is a common reason for persistent lameness. In one retrospective study of type III fractures, 3D-assisted surgery was associated with fewer radiographic cases of distal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis than conservative treatment, but recovery time was not significantly different. Radiographic healing often lags behind clinical improvement. The fracture line may remain visible long after the horse is sound. Return to work is therefore based primarily on clinical comfort rather than on complete radiographic resolution. Full athletic recovery commonly requires six to twelve months. ## Prevention No management practice has been shown in controlled studies to prevent distal phalanx fractures. Avoiding prolonged work on hard or rocky ground, maintaining good footing in turnout areas, and managing underlying conditions such as chronic laminitis or thin soles that can predispose to pathological solar-margin fractures are plausible risk-reduction steps, but their effectiveness has not been directly tested. Signs include: Sudden onset of severe lameness, often non-weight-bearing; strong bounding digital pulse; increased heat in the hoof; marked pain response to hoof testers over the affected area; reluctance to move or shifting weight; in some articular cases, swelling or effusion at the coronary band
## Overview Olecranon fracture is a break of the point of the elbow, usually from direct trauma such as a kick or fall. Because the triceps inserts on the olecranon, the horse cannot extend the elbow and presents with a dropped elbow and non-weight-bearing lameness. Surgical repair with plates and screws is the treatment of choice for most displaced fractures and carries a generally good prognosis. ## Causes Direct trauma. In foals, excessive pull from the triceps can also cause fracture. ## Diagnosis Characteristic posture and radiographs of the elbow. ## Treatment Tension-band plating for displaced fractures. Some non-displaced fractures in foals may be managed conservatively. Prognosis is good with internal fixation. ## Recovery and Prognosis Good with appropriate surgical repair. ## Prevention Trauma avoidance. Signs include: dropped elbow; inability to bear weight; swelling at the point of the elbow; cannot extend the elbow
## Overview Fractures of the proximal sesamoid bones range from small apical or basilar chips to catastrophic biaxial fractures in which both sesamoids break and the fetlock collapses. Chip fractures cause lameness and effusion and are often removed arthroscopically. Biaxial fractures are usually fatal on the racetrack. ## Causes Hyperextension injury during high-speed work. ## Diagnosis Radiographs. The clinical appearance of a dropped fetlock indicates severe disruption. ## Treatment Arthroscopic removal for chips. Surgical repair or euthanasia for more severe fractures depending on configuration. Biaxial fractures are almost always fatal. ## Recovery and Prognosis Good for small chips. Poor to grave for comminuted or biaxial fractures. ## Prevention Monitoring for early suspensory or sesamoid changes in racehorses. Signs include: lameness and fetlock effusion with chips; catastrophic biaxial fracture causes the fetlock to drop to the ground
Fractures of the radius are serious injuries that often require surgical repair and carry a guarded prognosis depending on configuration and soft-tissue damage. The olecranon can also fracture, affecting triceps function and elbow extension. Because the bones are fused, the forearm has no rotational capacity, which influences both normal biomechanics and injury patterns.
Severe lameness with swelling of the forearm or inability to bear weight after trauma needs immediate veterinary attention. Do not attempt to walk the horse long distances until evaluated.
See the Radius & Ulna (Right) on our interactive 3D horse model. Open 3D Model